SOCIAL &
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
SOCIAL &
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
CONTENTS
Colonization: the root of the problem
The social and environmental challenges associated with cacao cultivation trace back to the colonization of South and Central America. When conquistadors arrived, they were, among other things, captivated by the indigenous peoples’ use of cacao, which held both cultural and spiritual significance.
However, the Spanish presence brought devastating impacts: waves of diseases devastated populations, and religious conversion campaigns dismantled many traditional practices. The Spanish imposed rigid economic structures, converting local economies into profit-driven systems geared toward European markets.
As a result, traditional agricultural practices were compromised, sacred rituals tied to cacao were often abandoned, and ancient knowledge of sustainable growing methods began to fade. Indigenous cultures started to disappear.
During an interview, we asked Juan-Ra—Salvadorean and co-founder of Vai Cacao with his wife Elisa—if there was a cacao tradition in El Salvador and his answer was straight:
« Yes there is, but it’s been lost. It’s a historical problem, between colonization and the actual dictatorship they have which created an ongoing persecution of the indigenous people. To this day, they’re still struggling with preserving their culture and traditions on all different levels. »
The extensive environmental degradation that followed—deforestation, monoculture planting, and resource depletion—was the beginning of the exploitative practices that still dominate cacao production. Pressures to exploit natural resources for Europeans laid the groundwork for the extractive systems that remains in place today, not only for cacao.
Post-colonialism, independent governments searched for the most profitable agricultural products, indigenous people were forced to convert lands into crops chosen by those in control. Perhaps most notably, coffee somehow replaced cacao.
An industry founded on bad ethics
Cacao reached European royal courts, where it was still consumed as a drink, a few dozens of years after Spanish contact, at the beginning of the 17th century. It kept its elite status for a while and the 18th century saw the beginning of its spread. It wasn’t until the 19th century that chocolate as we know it today was « invented », gained popularity and became a commodity food by the 20th century.
Since then, the demand for cacao grew exponentially. This demand created a stark contrast between consumers, enjoying chocolate as a refined indulgence, and the laborers, toiling in brutal conditions to produce it. Early cacao plantations in South and Central America relied on enslaved Indigenous people and, increasingly, enslaved Africans.
However, as global demand for chocolate intensified, European powers sought new regions for cheaper, large-scale production. Cacao cultivation thus spread to West Africa, where forced labor practices continued and evolved. The industry’s rapid growth was fueled by exploitative labor practices and unsustainable environmental approaches designed to meet demand at minimal cost, prioritizing profit over human rights.
Today, the chocolate industry is still largely supported by cheap, often exploitative labor, low wages, and harsh working conditions. This legacy of colonial ethics has left a deeply ingrained, ethically troubling imprint on the cacao production that persists in many forms, including child labor and the perpetuation of poverty.
For more discussion on cacao’s history and chronology, head to our dedicated article.
The environmental situation
Cacao production is not only fraught with social issues but also contributes significantly to global environmental degradation. In many cacao-growing regions, rainforests are cleared to make room for plantations, contributing to deforestation and the destruction of critical ecosystems.
The shift from traditional shade-grown cacao to open-sun plantations—designed to yield more cacao beans at faster rates—eliminates much of the natural forest cover, resulting in monoculture systems that severely threaten biodiversity and increase cacao’s vulnerability to pests and diseases. Soil depletion and water scarcity are other direct consequences.
These industrial approaches also favor high-yield hybrid cacao varieties, which, while resistant to some diseases, reduce genetic diversity and quality of the cacao produced. Ancient varieties, often more flavorful and resilient in local ecosystems, are replaced by hybrids, eroding cacao’s natural diversity.
How to rebuild a virtuous cycle?
If we take a look at the numbers, among the 5 million tons of cacao beans produced each year, 74% comes from West-African countries, with Cote d’Ivoire and Ghana alone accounting for half of the total. Apart from other African producing nations, Ecuador, Brazil and Indonesia complete the list of bulk cacao producing countries.
Despite this massive number, more than 90% of cacao’s total production comes from an estimated 5 to 6 million smallholder farmers, for the vast majority working and living in poor conditions.
The answer to our question therefore lies in readjusting a balance that’s been off for centuries. Promoting origin cacao, specialty cacao and fine chocolate is one way to advocate for efficient solutions to the ethical and environmental issues the industry is facing. Because these segments are mostly involved in direct-trade business models, they guarantee better wages—notably higher than underappreciated fairtrade recommendations—as well as better living and working conditions for farmers.
From an environmental and social standpoint:
Stakeholders of these niches—whether they are brands, craft makers or sourcers—are often involved in curating or sharing educational programs.
These programs incentivize farmers to improve their agricultural process for them to produce higher quality cacao and place an added-value on their crops:
- Better cultivation: trainings aimed at evolving from destructive monocultural practices to diversified agroforestry,
- Better post-harvest practices: understanding and bettering post-harvest practices such as fermentation and drying helps make a huge difference on the end-product’s quality.
All this time and energy translates into higher grade cacao, higher prices for farmers, while rebuilding ecosystems by diversifying the species cultivated on the same plot of land. Farmers differentiate their revenue sources by growing other fruits and spices, and nature benefit from the rebuilding of a lush environment. Keys to a virtuous cycle.
From an ethical standpoint:
To this day, many indigenous people struggle to keep their culture alive.
As Juan-Ra reminds us in the second half of his answer: “One good part of working with ceremonial cacao is that it allows for sharing awareness around Mesoamerican cultures and traditions and might help on the long term to make it more present, therefore accepted, and to protect it.”
Putting cacao back in its original context is essential for several reasons. For the cultures that have almost been decimated by colonialism, this means giving them the respect they are owned by acknowledging the perpetrators’ responsibility and being actively involved in changing the patterns that still descend from exploitation. Protecting indigenous cultures means that they may revive their traditions and practices, inspiring other considerations for cacao.
This awareness will actively help shifting cacao’s narrative and see it evolved from a simple food or a crop to a meaningful gift from nature.
SOURCES
BACKGROUND MATERIAL
• Presilla, Maricel E. (2009). The New Taste of Chocolate, Revised: A Cultural and Natural History of Cacao with Recipes. Ten Speed Press.
• Coe, Sophie D., and Michael D. Coe. The True History of Chocolate. 3rd ed. London: Thames & Hudson, 2013.
• Cocoa Runners, Ethics in the chocolate industry
• Swiss Platform for Sustainable Cacao, Produced in the South – consumed in the North
• World Cacao Foundation, Improving farmer income through sustainable practices
